Tuesday, August 6, 2019
Theoretical Foundations of Human Relations Essay Example for Free
Theoretical Foundations of Human Relations Essay Section One: Increasingly there is economic interdependency among nations. A global communications network, like a gigantic central nervous system, links every nation of the earth. As ideas, information, and technology are exchanged, cultures merge and adapt to one another. Throughout the world, people dress more alike than ever before. Cities of the world share much in commonâ€â€police, luxury hotels, traffic, stores, banks, pollution. Thus, as the peoples of the world come together, we witness what some describe as an emerging world culture. According to Herbst, there are several American companies that actually employ oversees workers without thinking of the said individuals’ needs as foreign nationals in the country. Moreover, the situation of the said workers become devastatingly disturbing with regards the evaluation on how American companies treat their workers whether natives of the country or not. With the promise to give due payment for the job of the employees, such employers hold payment for the work visas of their workers, thus forfeiting the issues related with the contract signed by them and their employees as well. Likely though, it could be observed that such greed has increased the possibility of employees living their work or suing their employers at court with demand of the rightful amount of salary which they believe they are due. The increase of such incidents in the American market however had been reportedly committed by immigrants themselves. Such immigrants who are able o establish their own business in the country and are aiming to earn more than what they are supposed to earn likely make possibilities in stealing from their employees. Negatively, this results to a more devastating situation that is increasingly disturbing within the American society. Understandably, the said situation could still be fixed through educating the said entrepreneurs with regards the laws and ethics of human resource management. Through this, the problem could be resolved thus giving justice to the business and the workers of the organization as well. Nevertheless, while peoples and cultures intermingle, clearly not all see one another as brothers. â€Å"Everyone’s quick to blame the alien,†wrote a Greek playwright over 2,000 years ago. Sadly, the same is true today. The evidence is no farther away than newspaper reports of bigotry, hatred of foreigners, â€Å"ethnic cleansing,†racial strife, religious riots, massacre of civilians, killing fields, rape camps, torture, or genocide. Of course, most people can do little or nothing to change the course of ethnic conflicts. People may not even be directly affected by them. For many of us, however, problems come from a lack of communication with the foreigners with whom we come into contactâ€â€neighbors, workmates, or schoolmates. Does it not seem odd that people of differing ethnic groups so often find it difficult to trust and appreciate one another? After all, the Earth is a planet of enormous diversity, endless variety. Most of the people appreciate the rich variety of food, music, and color as well as the many kinds of plants, birds, and animals. Somehow, appreciation of variety does not always carry over to people who do not think and act in the same way that others do. Instead of looking at the positive aspects of diversity among peoples, many tend to focus on the differences and make them a point of contention. Certainly, living in a world that is governed with diversity, it could be expected that in the workplace, diversity itself is also present and thus cannot be avoided. Many workers refer to this hardship as the common source of many conflicts within the working area. Hence, the performance of the employees is then directly affected. Impossible as it may have seemed, diversity within the workplace has still been referred to by many modern business enthusiasts as assets of the organization. How could this be possible? What is Diversity?            Diversity, when referred to in business terms may mean a lot of things. An organization’s workforce may be referred to as diverse for many reasons as well. Diversity may occur because of the differences of opinion because of the differences in personality, in age, in educational attainment, in status in life and even in culture. Mostly, as observed on different business companies, the main reason of such diversity is the existence of a much distinct group of races making up a single workforce for a company.            How could all these happen? As mentioned in the introduction, many people have already transferred from place to place and a lot of those people, the so-called immigrants, have already decided to stay and work on the foreign lands they have gone to. Hence, the main effect of this social move on achieving success on other places, the employment of the multicultural population has been the resort to supporting the lives of the said immigrants. Hence, the workforce of every company making up the business industries are at times having the same worries on how to face the challenge of dealing with and managing people who are widely different from each other. Section Two:            As mentioned earlier, management of a diverse workforce has been one of the biggest problems that concern the human resources department of any type of company present in the business industries. Hence, it is just reasonable to say that at some points, some management teams may find it a difficult task as well. However, the author, John riddle says otherwise. According to him, â€Å"these are all factors of management that should be considered by good managers even before entering an organization†(113). Hence, this definitely means that avoiding diversity in the workforce may be impossible but giving a resolution to it is not that impossible. After all, there is still a common ground among the working force of each company no matter how diverse they may be it is that they are humans, which makes them capable of being dealt with and managed well. To add to the implication of the procedures, the reading entitled â€Å"CURRENT PSYCHOTHERAPIE, INCREASING MULTICULTURAL UNDERSTANDING: A COMPREHENSIVE MODEL AND DOUGLAS MCGREGOR, REVISITED: MANAGING THE HUMAN SIDE OF THE ENTERPRISES†, the author further mentions that human relations could be enhanced through the psychology of human relations. This means that the psychological approach in understanding human connections actually helps in understanding why and how people are able to relate to each other.            In this regard, John Riddle has suggested several points of consideration when dealing with such business problems. In general terms, he summarized the ways by which a good manager could handle the difficulties of dealing with a diverse workforce.            The said suggestions are as follows: Concentrate on the strengths of the employees. When a manager discovers the tasks where the employees usually excel in, they should be assigned to them as they are expected to be more productive on those fields of the job. Understand the abilities and the potential of each employee present in the organization. These potential assets of the employees could as well be used by the company itself in aiming for the goals that it has set up for the future. Allow communication lines t be open at all times. It is very important for managers to be good listeners. The ability of hearing what the employees want form the company as well as to how they could be of bigger help to the organization could be used as a resource of ideas for the company as well. Make the employees feel that they too have a sense of authority in the company. However, this type of authority should not overstep that of the administration’s. It should be clear that this authority could only be exercised at specific times and places when it is permitted. This may often refer to an ‘open door’ policy that deals with an easier type of agreement between the employees, which could give them a chance to affect how the organization is being managed. They are then allowed to give suggestions; however, no suggestions are implemented unless approved by the administration. Make sure that all employees understand the business goals and objectives. It should always be remembered that a well-informed employee, whether young or old, is a productive employee. A manager should always remember that he is supervising people with feelings who are valuable members of the organization, hence, treating them with great respect at all times no matter what culture they come from is one of the most important virtue any manager could post as an example for his colleagues. Treating everyone fairly and sensitively is the key to creating a fine working environment. It should be remembered that because of the different clutters of the people, they all have different preferences; they have different personal obligations and other more. Considering the fact that dealing with multicultural workforce also involve dealing with their differences of belief, a manager could as well consider fairness at all times to be able to set a common ground for everyone else in the organization. Keep everyone else busy and going all the time. Feeling one’s worth is usually measured on the things they are able to do for the organization in a day. In this manner, it could be said that regardless of one’s difference from the others, being able to do something for the company and being of worth to the organization makes an employee feel that even though there are differences, he still belongs to the organization he is working for. Keep employees informed of the ins and outs of the organization. Keeping employees in the dark when some changes within the organization arise may give them the notion that they are not given importance by the administration of the company. Acknowledge the employees’ efforts, years of work, talent, creativity and good job attributes. Doing so would help everyone else strive for the best while they are working in the company. It could be noticed that the suggestions listed in here are general. Putting these suggestions into good use have mostly caused several companies to achieve unity beyond diversity in their own much diverse workforces. Hence, as Jones commented in his book â€Å"Contemporary Management†, â€Å"diversity is a normal part of modern management. Being globally distinct, it could not be avoided that dealing with different people everyday is a challenge to the modern managers today†(180). Section Three:            The certainties of dealing with diverse people in the workforce are around ninety-nine percent. Considering that we are living in a culturally diverse society, it could be argued that a diverse workforce is indeed a challenge to many business managers today. However, at first, this fact may seem a big problem, on the other hand, if the managers are able to see the common ground of everyone else, which is being human, the said managers would recognize the possibility of making diversity a source of further progress for the company. Mixing up the talents and the abilities of the employees for the goal of the organization would surely help the company reach its peak potential. True, many businessmen around the world today are open to the idea of sharing their business programs with people from other races. Because of the advancement of technology, the said business systems have been made possible to exist between business enthusiasts who belong to different respective cultures.            To others, this step in modern business is usually referred to as one of the most prevalent risks taken by business companies today. Although, to those who have been able to succeed in a highly culturally diverse business environment, the system of involving different races within an organization system had brought them so much challenge to improve and thus further develop their company’s competency within the business world.            True, the challenges in making certain business systems possible is really not that easy to face. Both the risks of dealing with different people having different individualities as well as diverse cultural preferences are real challenges that must be considered carefully by any business founder. Yet, taking the necessary steps and adjustments in attaining success from the said business system is indeed most rewarding in the end. â€Å"Putting up any business is taking on a big risk†, indeed, controlling a business organization as well as the people making it up is a big challenge for anyone trying to enter the business industries. Although there is the information technology to help out in the process of business expansion, meeting people’s needs from different countries and cultures is always an issue in putting up any business which is expected to become known worldwide.            Indeed, it is no joke to take such a kid of challenge. But with the use of rightful reasoning and open-mindedness, the challenge of meeting people’s needs amidst their differences could be taken by anyone who is determined in making it to the business world. True, it does take so much effort, time and even research to really be able to become successful in this kind of business venture. But the ability to adjust one’s self for others as well as for the organization’s sake is considered a key reason why many who strongly believe in this system of diverse business environment survive the challenges. The Need to Communicate to Eliminate Issues of Differences            Communication is an important factor that makes a particular organization revolves around the cycle of success. It is one particular element that naturally makes the connection between the individual members of the organization possible. However, it is only through an effective use of communication shall it be noted as a prospect source of success for an organization. Without the effective use of the said factor of organizational connection, it could be observed that the organization would have a hard time following the success system that communication itself offers. What are the measures of both the positivity and the negativity of the usage of communication in organizational arrangements? How does this particular element of success affect the behavior of the members in a certain business organization? These questions shall be carried on through the discussions presented within the paragraphs that follow.            The interpersonal connection that communication particularly creates between people around the organizations actually creates the environment that the said groups of people are supposed to work in. there are particularly five major areas with which communication is particularly involved in the progressive process of the organizations in business: Communicating for the sake of passing information There is a need for constant passing of information especially for organizational members. The idea is that the regular way of people communicating with each other would indeed keep the organization unified and intact for the sake of continuous business progress. Communicating for organizational update on progress Whatever the company deals with, the members should know of all of them. This is for the sake of the establishment of trust among the employees as well as the organization’s administration section. It is through the application of regular communication that the progress reports could be utilized to motivate the other members of the organization. Communication for motivational purposes As mentioned earlier, there is a specific need for the people of the organization to take specific steps in being able to perform well for the sake of organization’s progress. To be able to come to a meeting point between the administrators and the employees, it is then necessary to take advantage of communication. Through the open line of communication that exists between the two said parties, it is then obvious that the changes could be given chances of being fulfilled as both sides of opinions are already able to relate to each other’s needs and expectations form the organization as well as form each other. Communication for the sake of advancement as an organization It is necessary that there exists an open line of communication between all the people making up the organization because of the fact that much of the progress procedures would rely on the ways that govern the ways by which the said people are able to connect with each other through speaking with each other. Their unity, their connection with each other towards progressive efforts relies on their capabilities to talk to each other and support each other through the use of communication. Communication for the sake of implying law To be able to keep the whole organization at the right track, there is a necessity for the administration to imply the laws of business within the operational engagements of the employees as this would particularly identify the limitations and the capabilities as well as the benefits that the company has further provided for the employees. Communicating to the employees on why the said set rules are necessary to be followed by the people working within the organization shall then make it easier for them to cope up with the organization’s rules and thus keep a clear track of the changes that they need to face as they are staying with the said organization.            From the discussion of the five-point reasons of why communication in the continuing process of a particular organization’s growth, it could be noted that the price that keeping the communication lines open pays is much essential for any organizational progress procedures. Constant attention given to the procedures of communication shall indeed bring forth fine results for the whole team or group that works their way on towards advancements. These five concepts of communication obviously involve the presence of arising conflicts within the process. As obviously mentioned in the explanation, the individuality of each member of the organizations actually notes the possibility of developing conflicts between them. It is through the usage of effective dealing with conflict could the organizations survive the procedures of dealing with their member’s individual differences. Facing destructive conflicts may not be as easy as with dealing with the constructive conflicts. This is primarily because of the fact that destructive conflict aims to destroy the thinking and the perception of the parties involved, whereas constructive conflict could still be turned around just to be able to use the conflict as key reasons for human motivation. [e.g. competition-based conflicts could bring in the possibilities of people wanting to achieve better than the others; thus constructive enough for the organization’s growth]  BIBLIOGRAPHY Riddle, John. (2001). Business Management. Adams Media Corporation. Avon, Massachusetts. Adams, Bob. (2000). Managing people: Lead your staff to peak performance. Adams Media Corporation. Avon, Massachusetts. Hiam, Alexander. (2001). Motivating and rewarding Employees: New and better ways to inspire your people. Adams Media Corporation. Avon, Massachusetts. Martinez, Esdras. (1998). Buisness Managements theories and practice. Rex books Publishing. Manila, Philippines. Jones, Gareth R. (2004). Contemporary Management. Irwin/McGraw-Hill; 4th edition. Pawan Budhwar. 2004. Managing Human Resources in Asia-Pacific       (Global Hrm). Routledge. Publishing Company. 236.  Richard C. Foltz. 2000. Religions of the Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century. Palgrave Macmillan. 241. Chen. 1998. Trajectories (Culture and Communication in Asia). Routledge. Publishing Company. 211. Kwok-kan Tam. 2002. Sights of Contestation: Localism, Globalism and Cultural Production in Asia and the Pacific. The Chinese University Press. 311. Peter Van Der Veer. 1995. Nation and Migration: The Politics of Space in the South Asian Diaspora. University of Pennsylvania Press.141. Laurence Whitehead. 2002. Emerging Market Democracies: East Asia and Latin America. The Johns Hopkins University Press. 213. Alan Barnard. 2002. Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology. Routledge. Publishing Company. 122. David Birch. 2001. Asia: Cultural Politics in the Global Age. Palgrave Macmillan. 23. CURRENT PSYCHOTHERAPIES,INCREASING MULTICULTURAL UNDERSTANDING: A COMPREHENSIVE MODEL AND DOUGLAS MCGREGOR, REVISITED: MANAGING THE HUMAN SIDE OF THE ENTERPRISE. Moira Herbst. (January, 2008). Are H-1B Workers Getting Bilked? Overseas companies are accused of underpaying foreigners on work visasâ€â€and hurting U.S. wages. http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/08_06/b4070057782750.htm?chan=top+news_top+news+index_best+of+bw. (May 20, 2008).
Monday, August 5, 2019
Role Of The Quantity Surveyor in Construction
Role Of The Quantity Surveyor in Construction 1.1 Background to the Study A competent design team is crucial for any new building project according to Lee (2008:127). The quantity surveyor can be a very valuable addition to the design team for the client, giving expert advice on contractual and financial matters. The quantity surveyor will have the clients interest as his number one priority and his services can be of great value to any person considering constructing a new building. According to Bowles Le Roux (1992:1) any person considering building or investing in construction projects needs expert advice from a quantity surveyor. No matter the size or complexity of a project, the quantity surveyor provides valuable advice through the various stages of the project. The Guide for Quantity Surveying Appointments (2006) states that any client who is considering building any structure of any size, changing an existing structure or investing in construction projects no matter how simple or complex, needs the expert advice of a professional quantity surveyor for establishing budgets, cash flows, cost planning, cost management and obtaining value for money. Construction projects differ from each other and every project has its own unique challenges. Construction projects are not standard products which have been designed and mass manufactured in a controlled environment. There is a lack of a relatively stable market price. This is due to monthly payments which are made as the work proceeds, before the project reaches completion. As a result of technological, financial and economical influences the methods adopted for construction work are varied and complex and the expert advice of a quantity surveyor should be obtained before the start of any project planning. This is the main reasons why there is a need for the services of a quantity surveyor. (Bowles Le Roux, 1992:2) The ordinary member of the general public has little knowledge or experience in the construction industry. However economically active individuals who can be seen as potential clients for residential construction projects are often reluctant to utilize the services of a professional quantity surveyor. According to Lee (2008:123), a potential pitfall for the first-time homeowner is to utilize the services of a non-reputable contractor who is not affiliated to the National Home Builders Registration Council (NHBRC). Members of the general public who are not experienced in the construction industry can be subjected to un-ethical practices and this may lead to their exploitation. Due to the many problems caused by these un-ethical and non-reputable contractors to the homeowners and other property professionals, the South African government passed legislation in 2001 known as the Housing Consumers Protection Measures Act. The intention of this Act is to guard homeowners against non-reputable contractors who build to substandard quality and then refuse to be held responsible. (Lee, 2008:123) One factor which may deter people from using the services of a quantity surveyor is the professional fees. According to research done by Cruywagen and Snyman (2005) professional quantity surveying services can be rendered as affordable in South Africa. The research shows that, due to the competitiveness of the market, it has become the norm for quantity surveyors to reduce professional fees. Cruywagen and Snyman (2005), state that there is a distinct relationship between the profitability for the quantity surveyor and the value of a project. This means residential projects are not profitable as compared to big industrial developments, shopping centers etc. This may be the reason for the lack of marketing in the residential sector and why the general public is not aware of the quantity surveying profession. The purpose of this study is to identify and understand the specific role of the professional quantity surveyor in the construction industry and to explain the significant effect a quantity surveyor can have on a construction project. 1.2 Problem Statement The general public who is not involved in the construction industry is unaware of the quantity surveying profession and the functions the quantity surveyor perform and this lack of knowledge can lead to their exploitation if a quantity surveyor is not involved. 1.3 Hypothesis For the purpose of this study the following hypotheses are set out: The general public is unaware of the quantity surveying profession and the services the profession provide. Fees associated with the quantity surveyor may intimidate homeowners who are looking to complete a project with as little investment as possible, not realizing that the quantity surveyor can save you a substantial amount of money by providing you with expert advice on financial and contractual matters. 1.4 Objectives This study has four primary objectives. The objectives are to: Outline the specific role of the quantity surveyor. Realize the major effect a quantity surveyor can have on a building project Make the general public aware of the quantity surveying profession and the functions the quantity surveyor performs. To learn why the general public is reluctant to use the services of a quantity surveyor. 1.5 Methodology A qualitative research approach was follow for the purpose of this study. The researcher has conducted a comprehensive review of relevant literature on the topic. The focus has been on the quantity surveying profession and the services it provide. Personal interviews have been conducted with professional quantity surveyors. To understand the broader picture members of the general public who recently became homeowners (of newly constructed buildings) was asked to complete a questionnaire. Attention has been given to whether or not the services of a quantity surveyor was utilized and if not, why? 1.6 Delimitations The research is limited to the residential construction industry. The focus of the research is on the services of a professional quantity surveyor and not that of the contractors quantity surveyor. Members of the general public who was approached with questionnaires was limited to those who were recently involved with the construction of a residential building. 1.7 Assumptions The researcher assumed that all data collected are accurate and all interviews and questionnaires conducted were answered truthfully. CHAPTER TWO THE QUANTITY SURVEYING PROFESSION 2.1 Introduction In this chapter all the literature on the related topic collected by the researcher will be reviewed. This review will include literature on the history of the quantity surveyor, the contractors quantity surveyor, competencies of a professional quantity surveyor, fees of the professional quantity surveyor, estimating and cost advice as well as the use of a bill of quantities. The core focus however will be to outline the specific functions of the professional quantity surveyor. 2.2 History of the quantity surveyor According to the Association of South African Quantity Surveyors (2010), the quantity surveying profession started with the turn of the nineteenth century. The first recorded use of the term Quantity surveyor was in 1859. Before then the terms measurer, Custom surveyor or surveyor were used. At that time it was custom for the surveyor to work for the master builders, measuring the completed work and often submitting biased final accounts to the building owners. As a result of this behavior it became the norm for building owners to enter into a contract and invite tenders before any work commenced. According to Bowles Le Roux (1992:4), this gave rise to competition and builders tendering realized that they were spending an immense amount of time and effort measuring and calculating to arrive at a tender figure. In addition there was the added danger that the builders interpreted the architects drawings differently which would lead to inaccurate pricing and result in the tenders not being calculated on an uniform basis. The builders realized that a surveyor could be employed to act as an unbiased person to measure the quantities on their behalf. This insured that the builders tendered on the same basis whilst sharing the cost for the surveyor. Building owners were afraid of unethical practice between the builders and the surveyor and realized it would be to their personal advantage to appoint and compensate the quantity surveyor. This is how the independent professional quantity surveyor gained consultant status. In South Africa the title quantity surveyor is reserved under the Quantity Surveyors Act of 1970 for the sole use by those who had acquired the obligatory qualifications and experience stipulated under the Act. Furthermore, those persons must register with the South African Council for Quantity Surveyors before they can act as consultants to the general public (ASAQS, 2010) 2.3 Contractors quantity surveyor The main difference between a professional quantity surveyor and a contractors quantity surveyor is that the latter is employed by the construction company and not by the client. Dent (1970:7) states that a contractor who undertakes big projects will need a quantity surveying staff. The contractors surveyor will represent the contractor and the contractors interest will be the main priority. According to Cornick and Osbon (1994:108), the contractors quantity surveyor spends comparatively the same amount of time on cost planning, feasibility studies and tender appraisal as the professional quantity surveyor and significantly more on post-contract services but significantly less on preparing tender documentation. Project cost control is one function that requires equal efficiency by both surveyors, the contractors quantity surveyor on behalf of the contractor and the professional quantity surveyor on behalf of the client. Cornick and Osbon (1994:109) identified seven main functions for the contractors quantity surveyor namely: Valuation of work completed for payment from client and payment to subcontractor. Determination of change due to variation from client or designer. Preliminaries allocation. Subcontractor accounts to agree tender and actual costs. Financial reporting for quarterly account forecasts. Cost accounting for plant and material use by company. Cost accounting for labour use by the company. Clients expectations of project cost control will increase as the clients and their cost advisers become more complex. The clients will be expecting the cost of their buildings to be reduced to match their budget. Therefore contractors quantity surveyor must strive to improving their cost controlling and accounting capabilities for the construction companies that they work for. 2.4 The professional quantity surveyor According to Bowles Le Roux (1992:3) the quantity surveyor is a professional consultant appointed by the client who wishes to invest in property development. It is the quantity surveyors responsibility to advise the client, architect and engineer on all financial and contractual matters from the pre-tender stage right through to the completion of the project. For the quantity surveyor to accomplish this role he must develop a comprehensive understanding of the various construction methods and have a transparent understanding of the different forms of contract and sub-contract agreements available in the construction industry. The quantity surveyor must be capable of advising on the cost of alternative construction methods and costs of different materials. An analytical approach must be adopted in finding beneficial solutions in the interest of the client. The Guide for Quantity Surveying Appointments (2006) states that a professional quantity surveyor will draw on extensive cost information obtained from client databases and experience from other projects for effective budget setting. It is the quantity surveyors ongoing implementation of financial discipline in the areas of budget setting, alternative design option costing, cash flow predictions, final cost forecasting, management of variations including potential areas of dispute and timeous final account settlement, etc. that allows the maximum value for money requirement to be achieved. 2.4.1 Standard quantity surveying services According to A Guide for Quantity Surveying Appointments (2006) the standard services that can be provided by a professional quantity surveyor are: Financial viability studies and the initial budget planning prior to the detailed design to establish whether the project is feasible in terms of the clients financial budget; Preliminary cost studies and comparing alternative designs and materials in terms of operating and maintenance costs; Monitoring the design as it evolves to ensure it stays within clients budget; Preparing tender documentation for pricing by contractors and advising on contractual arrangements; Evaluating the submitted tenders and reporting on the suitability thereof; Negotiating the contract sums with the individual contractors; Preparing cash flow predictions; Preparing cost reports at regular intervals; Valuing construction work in progress; Preparing the final account thus determining the final cost; Settlement of the final costs with the contractor and sub-contractors. Additional specialist services that many quantity surveyors are experienced in providing are: Acting as project manager; Acting as principle agent; Consulting on property development; Valuation of buildings for insurance purposes etc.; Acting as an expert witness; Advising on the settlement of disputes through mediation and arbitration. Facilitating with fast track construction projects; Providing services for projects in engineering, mining and petro-chemical industries. It is recommended to employ the quantity surveyors full services as a professional consultant rather than in a technical/measurement role in order to utilize the quantity surveyors expertise to the best advantage. 2.4.2 Competencies of the professional quantity surveyor Competencies can be defined as the ability a person should have in a given occupational area subject to external and internal factors like organization size, type, and age (Barret, 1992). (Holmes Joyce, 1993) defined competence as a description of an action, a mode of behavior or outcome that a person should be able to demonstrate, or the ability to transfer skills and knowledge to new situations within the occupational area. In the construction industry the quantity surveyor can be seen as the economist and cost accountant, whose services facilitate the client to obtain the maximum value for the clients investment. There are three aspects which reflect value for a client in the construction industry, namely cost, time and quantity. Quantity surveyors add value to the construction project performance by using the appropriate competencies. It is therefore important for an assessment of the quantity surveyors competencies in order to highlight the continuing relevance of their services in the construction industry (Nkado Meyer, 2001:483). The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) set out the competencies required by professional quantity surveyors in three categories, namely basic -, core and optional competencies. Table 1 below presents the competencies in three categories. Under the structure of the RICS the basic competencies are present in all construction professions, the core competencies primarily for quantity surveyors and the optional competencies are required for specialization in a specific field. Table 1: Competencies set out by the RICS (Nkado Meyer, 2001:484). A Study conducted by Nkado and Meyer (2001:484) identified 23 defined competencies which apply to quantity surveyors in South Africa. A questionnaire was sent to randomly selected members of the ASAQS of a different demographic background. The questionnaire listed the 23 competencies in alphabetical order. The respondents were asked to rate the importance of the competencies for a career as a professional quantity surveyor in South Africa at present, the importance in the future and the level of evidence of each competency in the quantity surveying profession. Rating worked on a scale of 1 to 5 with 1 being à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"not important and 5 being à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"very important. The researchers ensured the respondents anonymity to attain an honest response. Table 2: Competencies ratings (Nkado Meyer, 2001:487). Table 2 shows the ratings which have been converted to percentages for effective interpretation. It is interesting to note that three of the traditional core competencies are rated in the top five competencies required by quantity surveyors in South Africa at present, the three being procurement and financial management, economics of construction and construction contract practice. The results showed that management orientated competencies were rated of higher importance for future services while the highest importance for current services were technically orientated. The five most important competencies required by quantity surveyors in South Africa at present are: Computer literacy and information technology; Procurement and financial management; Economics of construction; Construction contract practice; Measurement. The five most important competencies required by quantity surveyors in South Africa in the future are: Computer literacy and information technology; Procurement and financial management; Economics of construction; Project management; Marketing. Competencies utilized by quantity surveyors with greatest efficiency in South Africa are: Measurement; Procurement and financial management; Professional practice; Construction contract practice; Economics of construction. It is evident that management orientated competencies will grow in importance and will replace the traditional technically orientated competencies as the core competencies of the quantity surveyor (Nkado Meyer,2001:490). 2.4.3 Professional quantity surveying fees The fees charged by professional quantity surveyors are proportionate with the work done for the client and according to A Guide for Quantity Surveying Appointments 2006 there are 5 options available: A time charge; A percentage fee based on a tariff recommended by The South African Council for the Quantity Surveying Profession (see Table 3); An agreed percentage of the contract value; A lump-sum fee; Any other fee arranged between the quantity surveyor and the client. 2.4.3.1 Time Charges The following recommended hourly time charges for the private sector were approved by The South African Council for the Quantity Surveying Profession with effect from 1 January 2010 (SACQSP, 2010). (All rates are exclusive of VAT.) Not exceeding 5 years experience R 700-00 Exceeding 5 years and not exceeding 10 years experience R 1 250-00 Exceeding 10 years experience R 1 750-00 Specialist work R 2 190-00 2.4.3.2 Percentage fees By using table 3 a basic fee will be determined and multiplied by the appropriate percentage (Table 4, 5 6). The basic fee shall be calculated on the value for fee purposes (see table 3). Table 3: Basic fee (SACQSP, 2010) Table 4: Appropriate percentages for building work (SACQSP, 2010) Table 5: Appropriate percentages for engineering work (SACQSP, 2010) Table 6. Appropriate percentages for management services (SACQSP, 2010) Once the primary charge (table 3) is established, the amount is multiplied by the appropriate percentage. In addition to this there will be a marginal rate which would be added to the primary charge. The gross amount will be payable to the quantity surveyor as the professional fees. 2.5 Estimating and cost advice Aibinu and Pasco (2008:1258) states: Pre-tender cost estimation (or early stage cost estimation) is the forecasting of the cost of a project during the planning and design stage. Research done by Trost and Oberlender (2003) identified 11 factors that play a role in the precision of estimates of which the 5 most important are: Process design; Estimator team experience and cost information; Time spent on preparation of estimate; Site requirements; The current labour and bidding climate. According to Bennett, Morrison and Stevens (1981) estimating is the main function of cost planning services provided by the quantity surveyor. They conclude that cost planning is unsuccessful without decent estimating. Morrison (1984:57) states that quantity surveyors have developed different methods for estimating to deal with the large variety of projects and designs. These different methods differ in detail with some estimates being very thorough, for instance a priced bill of quantities. Other may be very simple and only entail a simple lump sum estimate. All other factors being equal, the estimates accuracy will increase as the detail and time spent in preparing the estimate increases. 2.5.1 Clients brief The client, architect (design team) and the quantity surveyor are the most important members in the in the project briefing process. According to research done (Bowen, Pearl, Nkado Edwards, n.d.) it is vital to have an efficient client brief if the client is to reach his objectives with regard to the time, cost and quality of the project. Insufficient briefing of the design team by the client can lead to major frustration and unhappiness for the client. The brief procedure is the process where the client explains and spells out the objectives and requirements of a project (Bowen et al., n.d.). Bowen (1993) states that: The purpose of this stage is for the clients to communicate to the design team and specialist consultants their needs and objectives in initiating the project. For the client to be satisfied, the design of the building must fulfill the clients needs with regards to the technical aspects and quality standards. In addition to this the project must be completed within the budget and on time (Seymour Louw, 1990). In order to achieve this, a detailed and complete client brief is necessary to eliminate as many uncertainties as possible. 2.5.2 Feasibility studies After the briefing process, the quantity surveyor will do a feasibility study. The outcome of the feasibility study helps the client to decide whether to go ahead with the project. A feasibility study is conducted to ascertain whether a project idea is economically viable (Hofstrand Clause, n.d.). It is the quantity surveyors responsibility to make recommendations to the client on the viability of the project and give professional advice on any alternatives. The feasibility study involves economical and technical investigations that allow the client to decide whether to proceed with the project (Association of South African Quantity Surveyors, 2010). According to Hofstrand Clause (n.d.) a feasibility study: Identifies alternatives. Identifies reasons not to proceed. Indicate new opportunities. Gives quality information for better decision making. Assist in acquiring funding from banks and other investors. 2.6 Use of bill of quantities After the quantity surveyor completes the elemental estimate the client will decide whether the project will go ahead or not. This decision is largely based on whether the estimate is within the clients budget or not. If the estimate is within budget the client should instruct the architect to prepare detailed working drawings for construction. The quantity surveyor can start with the preparation of the bill of quantities once he has received these drawings (Bowles Le Roux, 1992). Davis, Love and Baccarini (2009:99) states that the bill of quantities has 2 main uses and these can be categorized under pre-contract and post-contract stage. In the pre-contract stage the bill of quantities aid contractors to prepare their tenders. In the post-contract stage the bill of quantities assists the quantity surveyor and the contractor in the valuation of the work in progress and work completed for payment purposes. The bill of quantities is mainly used for tendering purposes. It enables contractors to prepare tenders using the same information which will lead to more accurate tender sums. The bill of quantities allow for a common basis on which the tenders can be compared. This brings about a competitive market (Kodikara, Thorpe McCaffer, 1993:261). According to Bowles and Le Roux (1992) the bill of quantities describes the nature of the building. It is a document which lists all the items that need to be completed for the construction of the building. These items required for the completion of the building is measured from drawings and specifications received from the architect and engineers. The total cost for the project will be the sum of all the individual items added together. When these items are priced there must be an allowance for the execution of each item as well as a realistic profit margin. The information in the bill of quantities can be classified into three fundamental categories namely; preliminaries, preambles and bills. The preliminaries of a contract entail all requirements of the project which do not have a direct impact on the construction works. The preliminaries of a contract may include health and safety requirements, access to and from site, accommodation for workforce, insurances required etc. Preambles define the standards of workmanship and materials to be used. The bills contain the measured items needed to complete the works and comprises of the description, units and quantities (Kodikara et al., 1993:261). The bill of quantities, detailed construction drawings, engineering drawings and specifications will be issued to building contractors. These documents form part of the tender documentation. The tender documents enable contractors to submit a competitive tender for a project and aid them in determining an accurate price for the completion of the building. A practical time limit is set for the contractors to price the bill. All tenders should be handed in before the specified closing date. According to Davis et al. (2009:103), the bill of quantities has various advantages to the parties involved in a project: Pre-contract stage: Database à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" It provides a cost database for future estimating Fee calculation à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" It provides a conclusive basis for the calculation of professional fees Asset management à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" It provide data for asset management of finished building, insurance, maintenance schedules etc. Taxation à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Provide basis for precise preparation of depreciation schedules as part of the asset management plan. Post-contract stage: Accurate progress payments à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" It becomes a basis from which the interim payments can be evaluated. This insures work is done at a reasonable price and gives the contractor and client peace of mind that the contractor is not paid too much or too little for work completed. Pricing of contract instructions à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" It provides a basis for the valuation of variations to the project. Risk management à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Prices from the contractor in the bill of quantities can be compared with current market related prices. According to Davis et al. (2009:103), the major disadvantages of the bill of quantities are that the preparation is time consuming and it tends to increase cost. 2.7 Conclusion It is clear from the above that the quantity surveyor can be a very valuable addition to the clients professional team. Quantity surveyors in South Africa are competent professionals. From the inception stage of a project, right through to the final payment, the quantity surveyor will give expert advice on financial and contractual matters. The successful completion of a project can never be guaranteed due to the many uncontrollable factors in the construction industry. However having the services of a quantity surveyor at your disposal will greatly improve the chances of completing a project successfully and within budget. CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Data In this chapter the data collection methods and the analysis of the data is explained. For the purpose of this study a qualitative research methodology was followed in order to test the hypotheses put forward. The research was conducted by way of a comprehensive literature review and collecting data through interviews and questionnaires. The research problem is mainly that the general public is unaware of the quantity surveying profession therefore data relating to the services that the quantity surveyor offer and the profession in general were required. 3.2 Collection of data Books and journals on the related topic from local and international sources were used for the collection of data. All the data was collected before the field work started and was done over a two month period. Furthermore, primary data was collected through personal interviews and questionnaires. Interviews were conducted with quantity surveyors. The interviews were informal but due to the researchers relative lack of experience in conducting interviews the questions were well prepared. Questionnaires were used to obtain the necessary data from members of the general public who were recently involved in the construction of a residential building. The questionnaires consisted out of open ended questions and were administered in person. To maximize to accuracy of the response the questions were short and in unambiguous language (Leedy Ormrod, 2005:190). To insure the validity of the research an honest response is required. For this reason the names of individuals and the quantity surveying company approached for the research will be held confidential. 3.3 Data analysis The qualitative data was organized, summarized and analyzed by the researcher in order to reach a conclusion and make recommendations. It should be noted that the sample is very small, but for the purpose of this study it is sufficient for the researcher to understand the problem at hand and reach a conclusion. CHAPTER FOUR FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS 4.1 Introduction Primary data was collected through interviews and questionnaires as explained in the previous chapter. Ten individuals who were recently involved in a residential project were approached to complete the questionnaire. This chapter will discus the findings of the questionnaire and will incorporate the data collected from interviews with quantity surveyors. 4.1.1 Awareness of the quantity surveying profession Figure 4.1 Indicate the awareness of the quantity surveying profession. It was found that the large majority of the respondents were aware of the profession. However this does not necessarily mean they understand what the profession entails. An interesting observation was that the respondent, who was not aware of the quantity surveying profession, was the only respondent under 30 years of age. 4.1.2 Understanding of the quantity surveyor The question was what the understanding of quantity surveyors was by the respondents. Three of the ten respondents had reas
Sunday, August 4, 2019
Sustainable Development Policies Can Reduce Urbanization Problems Essay
Cities all over the world are developing. This urbanization process is causing a number of problems and can be met by sustainable development policies. In the beginning, it is important to know what is the reason for urbanization. Most people move to the city because they want to get a better life. Another important term is a sustainable development. There are some definitions for sustainable development, but simply they say that sustainable development is a development which using resources now and preserving them for future generations (Adams, 1999, p.137). This concept has been agreed internationally at a Rio Conference in 1992 to be implemented by all government policies which mostly known as â€Å"Agenda 21†principles (Adams, 1999, p.141). This paper will show that traffic jams and housing problems caused by urbanization can be met by sustainable development policies. The structure of this paper will first explain the situation that leads to traffic jams and housing prob lems. Next, it will elaborate the sustainable development solutions, implications for the solutions, and evaluations how effective the sustainable development solutions solved the problems. A general situation of urbanization trend in developing countries and developed countries is increasing. In 18th Century only 3% of the world total population lived in urban areas but as projected in 2000 this number will increase at above 50% (UN as cited in Elliot, 1999, p. 144). According to UN (as cited in Elliot, 1999, p.144), it is figured that the total urban population in developing countries has increased from around 400 millions people in 1950 to around 2000 millions people in 2000. At the same time, total urban population in developed countries is double from ... ... high rise public housing, and control population growth, being implemented together should be sufficient enough to solve the housing problem brought by urbanization. In conclusion, increasing urbanization trend in the world has given rise to traffic jams and housing problems. These problems can be solved by sustainable development policies such as public transport investment, traffic management system, car control, develop new towns, build high rise public housing, and population growth control. As a result, most of the problems are solved, manageable or minimized. Although some solutions are considered better than others, having integrated solutions may have a more effective way to solve the problems. Future generations will suffer if the government did not implement the policies. Therefore, it is strongly recommended to implement them as soon as possible.
Saturday, August 3, 2019
The Process of Exorcism Essay -- Religion
When the term exorcism is mentioned, many people think of the devil-possessed head spinning, lead character in the 1973 movie The Exorcist. What is the actual definition of exorcism that Hollywood does not share with us? Exorcism as defined by the Catholic Encyclopedia is (1) the act of driving out, or warding off, demons, or evil spirits, from persons, places, or things, which are believed to be possessed or infested by them, or are liable to become victims or instruments of their malice; (2) the means employed for this purpose, especially the solemn and authoritative adjuration of the demon, in the name of God, or any of the higher power in which he is subject (Toner). However, man people are far less versed in the Roman Catholic form of exorcism. The term Exorcism is derived from the Greek word â€Å"Exorkizein,†which means to bring by oath (Toner). The earliest accounts of exorcism come from ancient Babylon, where Babylonian priests served as the ritual performers of exorcisms. These ancient priests would construct wax or clay figurines suppose to represent the demon ascribed to the possessed person. The demon resembling figurines were then destroyed resulting the demonic spirit being removed from the person. The Fear of demonic spirits was so high in ancient Babylon that it was considered to be â€Å"the most important factor of daily life of a Babylonian.†The first explanations, which were written by the Assyrians for the handling of illness, incorporated prayers to god and challenges towards demons who were believed to be associated with diseases of every type (Bancroft). Exorcism continued to impact the Empires of ancient Mesopotamia in the 6th century Persian Empire. In the official religion of Persia, Zoroastrianism, accoun... ...s/religion/re0418.html>. Graham, Fr. Cliff. "Exorcism--The Facts!" Exorcism--The Facts! Jan. 2007. Web. 12 Apr. 2012. http://www.stmichael.pair.com/index.htm MacNutt, Francis. The Healing Reawakening and Deliverance from Evil Spirits. Grand Rapids, Mich: Chosen, 2009. Print. Matthew. The New American Bible: With Revised New Testament. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1987. Print. Mark. The New American Bible: With Revised New Testament. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1987. Print. Martin, Malachi. Hostage to the Devil: The Possession and Exorcism of Five Contemporary Americans. New York: Quality Paperback Book Club, 2000. Print. Toner, Patrick. "Exorcism." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 5. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909. 2 Apr. 2012 . Weller, Philip T. The Roman Ritual. Milwaukee: Bruce Pub., 1964. Print.
Education Beyond Undergraduate Essay -- Masters Graduate School Essays
Education Beyond Undergraduate Graduate or professional education is an often-debated topic for a large number of University seniors. Regardless of the undergraduate degree many students must decide whether to enter the job market or go to school for another couple of years. When these students are faced with this decision it is important to look at what they consider. Is it job satisfaction, future pay, or the mere fact that they want to spend a few more years in college? These issues are all very important to students in very different manners. An important reason students consider continuing their education beyond their undergraduate degree is job satisfaction. Through my marketing classes, I have learned that my generation (generation X) is more concerned with their job satisfaction than compensation or benefits. Was job satisfaction a motivator in my decision to continue my education beyond graduate school? Definitely, I feel that with the graduate degree I plan to receive will enable me to attain a job that will make me happy. I think that this is something all college students think about when they try to pick a major in college. If I am satisfied with my job when I get into the â€Å"real world,†it will not matter to me what pay I receive. Is it possible that there are students who decide to continue their education just for the difference in pay they receive? I truly think it is. It is important to consider how students that go beyond an undergraduate degree pay for their schooling. As a person who is planning to go through Law School, I think that whether or not a person goes beyond undergraduate depends on how hard they struggled financially during their undergraduate schooling. I feel that if th... ...hings are very important to a lot of people. A large number of people want to receive an education that gives them a better shot at being economically stable in the future. It is very important for students to consider an education beyond undergraduate. I believe that many students are faced with this decision at the end of each school year. It is also viable to believe that these three items in this essay are of great significance to these graduating seniors. When a student spends four to five years in undergraduate school, they feel worn out and feel that school is the last place that they want to be. But, after considering some of these facts, they may feel that a graduate or professional education is exactly what they should do whether they look at future job satisfaction, future compensation, or just want to spend a few more years with their friends.
Friday, August 2, 2019
Benefits of a Performance Management System Essay
Activity Learning Outcome 1. Describe the purpose of performance management and its relationship to business objectives. Armstrong says that â€Å"One of the aims of performance management is to develop the capacity of people to meet and exceed expectations and to achieve their full potential to the benefit of themselves and the organization.†Organizations want people to reach their best because underperforming can cause loose for business. Performance management allows employees to look at their career development and potential promotions and career prospects. Also, performance management allows employees and management to discuss job changes (an example is given: new technologies coming to the company) and can adapt better to changes in the environment. 2. Explain the components of performance management systems. The main component of a good performance management system is a performance review or appraisal: This could be annually or two times a year and even monthly. This way Managers ensure and check their employees are performing as they would expect them to. Another component is training. For example, new computers or some sort of new technology might have arrived at the company and managers should ensure that all members of the staff are fully trained. Very important as well is to have a good reward policy in place for good performers. 3. Explain the relationship between motivation and performance management People that are motivated will work harder, therefore motivation helps higher performance. When staff is motivated, they will start looking at careers prospects including training to acquire new skills or develop new ones to then seek for promotions. If they’re motivated they become more ambitious and want to go up the company’s organizational chart. If employees are motivated, they’ll be willing to develop themselves not waiting for management to suggest or ask to go, for example, on a training course. Staff will be proactive an nd look for it themselves. Sometimes, self-learning is much more effective than a training course if they’re motivated. According to Taylor in his Instrumentality motivation theory that people are motivated mainly by rewards. This comes from the massification era and he sustained that the more you pay to your employees, the harder they will work for you. This was lately discussed as he was thought to treat people like objects. Vroom defended a Process/Cognitive motivational theory, where the person’s motivation depends on the perception of the effort they put on their work, as their efforts will result in better work. The processed the information they were given, questioned if the target given were achievable and if it was and if they achieved it if management were really going to give them the reward. And if they did, do they really value it? Learning Outcome 1. Identify 2 purposes of reward within a performance management system. There are plenty of purposes of the reward of performance management, being the main one to recognize performance and motivate individuals. Reward attracts people, motivates them and the most important thing, retains them within the organization. Recruiting is very hard, competitive and time-consuming; therefore, a low turnover of your employees always benefits the company. The job market is incredibly competitive and candidates A good reward strategy can definitely change behaviors and control expenditure, helping companies to advance their ideas of cost savings in their aims. 2. Describe at least 3 components of a total reward system, 1 of which should be non-financial. A total reward is the combination of monetary and non-monetary rewards. Some of the monetary rewards are mandatory, like the pay and the pension, but others are at the employer discretion. Non-mandatory and really valuable for the employee rewards are, at the moment, things like flexiwork or working from home, recognition by their managers and colleagues and made the employee feel valuable, career opportunities where they know that if they work hard, their hard work will be recognised and also quality of working life, having friends at work and being happy going to your workplace (is priceless). The example is given: When I worked at Oracle Corporation, we had a â€Å"Flexipoints†flexible benefits system that was our own choice. Depending on your job role and seniority level within the company, you were allocated several points (e.g. 2500 points) and you could choose your own benefits from a wide range in their intranet for a certain period. In my case, I usually went for the health insurance, which was about five hundred points, plus a few extra days of holiday, which was around one hundred points each, and maybe something else, and the rest was converted to extra annual cash. I loved it! Learning Outcome 1. Identify and explain the factors that need to be considered when managing performance There are plenty of factors to be considered when managing performance of the employees, starting with the goals of the organization. Managers should ask themselves things like what is the organization about? What are the goals of this specific individual? Does this employee have any training needs? Do they have any issue with the organization? Make sure they know the answers to these questions will help them to set an appropriate target for each of their staff. Managing performance should be a continuous process that is always measuring that the person that works for your organization contributes to the goals and objective of the company. When managing performance, we should consider different factors like: – Resource Issues: Do your team have the resources they need? Are some members of staff performing extra work because of hiring needs? All of this should be considered when reviewing their performance. – Time Issues: Is the employee coming to work on time? How important is punctuality for you and your team? And not only punctuality but does the employee uses the time as a resource effectively? How are his time management skills? Does the same task seem to take some employees much more time than to others? – Motivation: As explained above, the motivation of the employees and regular one-to-one would improve enormously their productivity – Skills and Knowledge Issues: Are your employees prepared and fully trained to perform their job? Have you started using a new piece of software recently and if so, are the staff fully confident about it? – Extenuating Circumstances: As we would see below in the performance review I had to conduct, sometimes employees have difficult times at home and go through the sad period that can affect their performance. Managers should not forget we are all humans and is not easy to leave all our problems at home. 2. Describe the data required by individuals involved in performance and reward management processes. There are plenty of documents and data required for performance and reward management processes. Learning Outcome 1. Explain the frequency, purpose, and process of performance review
Thursday, August 1, 2019
Philosophy of Benedict Spinoza Essay
If one were to make a list of iconoclastic and radical thinkers, Benedict Spinoza would rank high. His great and enduring work, Ethics, continues to have renewed impact, currently among environmentalists and ecologically minded thinkers. Spinoza wrote numerous philosophical, political, and religious criticism works. His efforts consistently express a mind set in favor of religious tolerance and in opposition to traditional religious orthodoxy. In his two major works, Tractatus Thologico-Politicus and Ethics present interpretations of spiritual concepts that continue to offend some religious believers and provide an avenue of belief for those who aver traditional religion. Born in Amsterdam on November 24, 1632 in a jewish community and died in The Hague on February 20, 1677 at the age of 44. Latinized his given name Baruch(blessed) using the form Benedictus. Spinoza lived an outwardly simple life as a lens grinder, turning down rewards and honors throughout his life, including prestigious teaching positions. The family inheritance he gave to his sister. On 27 July 1656, the Talmud Torah congregation of Amsterdam issued a writ of cherem (Jew)/Herem(Hebrew), a kind of ban, shunning, ostracism, expulsion, or excommunication against the 23 year old Spinoza. Amsterdam and Rotterdam operated as important cosmopolitan centers where merchant ships from many parts of the world brought people of various customs and beliefs. Some possibility of free thought and shelter from the crushing hand of ecclesiastical authority. Most significantly, he came into contact with so-called ‘free-thinking’ Protestants – dissenters from the dominant Calvinism – who maintained a lively interest in a wide range of theological issues, as well as in the latest developments in philosophy and science. In order to discuss their interests, these free-thinkers organized themselves into small groups, they called colleges, which met on a regular basis. Spinoza may have attended such meetings as early as the first half of the 1650? s, and it is most likely here that he received his first exposure to Cartesian thought. His intellectual horizons were expanding and he was experiencing a restlessness that drove him to look further afield. It was at this time that he placed himself under the tutelage of an ex-Jesuit, Latinist,a medical doctor, Franciscus Van den Enden, who was notorious for his allegedly irreligious cast of mind, a passionate advocate of democratic political ideals. Spinoza’s increasingly unorthodox views and, perhaps, laxity in his observance of the Jewish law strained his relations with the community. Tensions became so great that resulted in his excommunication . Most Important works a) Ethica ordine geometrico demonstrate (simply, Ethics) b)Tractatus Theologico-politicus c)Brief Treatise on God, Man and His Happiness d)Tractaus de intellectus emendation e)Cogitata metaphysica Philosophy A . Against dualism â€Å"God is the infinite, necessarily existing (that is, uncaused), unique substance of the universe. There is only one substance in the universe; it is God; and everything else that is, is in God. †Spinoza believed God exists and contends that â€Å"Deus sive Natura†(â€Å"God or Nature†) is a being of infinitely many attributes, is abstract and impersonal. As a youth he first subscribed to Descartes’s dualistic belief that body and mind are two separate substances, but later changed his view and asserted that they were not separate, the universal substance consists of both body and mind, that it is a single identity there being no difference between these aspects. He contended that everything that exists in Nature (i. e. , everything in the Universe) is one Reality (substance) and there is only one set of rules governing the whole of the reality which surrounds us and of which we are part. Spinoza believes that: 1)a God that does not rule over the universe by providence, but a God which itself is the deterministic system of which everything in nature is a part. 2)God would be the natural world and have no personality. 3)To see God or Nature as acting for the sake of endsâ€â€to find purpose in Natureâ€â€is to misconstrue Nature and â€Å"turn it upside down†by putting the effect (the end result) before the true cause. 4)Nor does God perform miracles, since there are no departures whatsoever from the necessary course of nature. The belief in miracles is due only to ignorance of the true causes of phenomena. If a stone has fallen from a room onto someone’s head and killed him, they will show, in the following way, that the stone fell in order to kill the man. For if it did not fall to that end, God willing it, how could so many circumstances have concurred by chance (for often many circumstances do concur at once)? Perhaps you will answer that it happened because the wind was blowing hard and the man was walking that way. But they will persist: why was the wind blowing hard at that time? why was the man walking that way at that time? If you answer again that the wind arose then because on the preceding day, while the weather was still calm, the sea began to toss, and that the man had been invited by a friend, they will press onâ€â€for there is no end to the questions which can be asked: but why was the sea tossing? why was the man invited at just that time? And so they will not stop asking for the causes of causes until you take refuge in the will of God, i.e. , the sanctuary of ignorance. (I, Appendix) B. Humane vision â€Å"Everything must necessarily happen the way that it does. Therefore, humans have no free will. They believe, however, that their will is free†Spinoza was a thoroughgoing determinist who held that absolutely everything that happens occurs through the operation of necessity. For him, even human behaviour is fully determined, with freedom being our capacity to know we are determined and to understand why we act as we do. So freedom is not the possibility to say â€Å"no†to what happens to us but the possibility to say â€Å"yes†and fully understand why things should necessarily happen that way. This illusionary perception of freedom stems from our human consciousness, experience and our indifference to prior natural causes. Humans think they are free but they ? dream with their eyes open?. For Spinoza, our actions are guided entirely by natural impulses. This picture of Spinoza’s determinism is ever more illuminated through reading this famous quote in Ethics: ? the infant believes that it is by free will that it seeks the breast; the angry boy believes that by free will he wishes vengeance; the timid man thinks it is with free will he seeks flight; the drunkard believes that by a free command of his mind he speaks the things which when sober he wishes he had left unsaid. †¦ All believe that they speak by a free command of the mind, whilst, in truth, they have no power to restrain the impulse which they have to speak. †Thus for Spinoza morality and ethical judgment like choice is predicated on an illusion. c. Politcal Philosophy â€Å"Every man may think what he likes,and say what he thinks. The real disturber of peace are those who, in a free state, seek to curtail the liberty of judgement which they are unable to tyrannize over. †Spinoza’s reputation as a political thinker is eclipsed by his reputation as a rationalist metaphysician. Nevertheless, Spinoza was a penetrating political theorist whose writings have enduring significance. In his two political treatises,has it’s main purpose the defense of free expression, Spinoza advances a number of forceful and original arguments in defense of democratic governance, freedom of thought and expression, and the subordination of religion to the state. On the basis of his naturalistic metaphysics, Spinoza also offers trenchant criticisms of ordinary conceptions of right and duty. And his account of civil organization, grounded in psychological realism, stands as an important contribution to the development of constitutionalism and the rule of law. There is also textual evidence for the view that Spinoza does not reject other forms of government in favor of democracy. One of the central aims of A Political Treatise is precisely to demonstrate how different forms of governments can meet the fundamental political value of stability. For example, Spinoza explains that, historically, monarchies have enjoyed the most stability of any form of government (PT: VI:317), and that their potential instability results from the divergent interests between the sovereign and the citizens. In light of this, Spinoza advises the sovereign to act in his or her own interests which is to act in the interests of the citizens. In the case of aristocracy, instability is said to result from inequality of political power among the ruling aristocrats, the remedy for which consists of equalizing such power as far as possible. Spinoza’s considered thoughts on the stability of democracy were interrupted by his untimely death, but while he thought it most consistent with freedom, he nevertheless regarded it as the most unstable of all political forms. Indeed, Spinoza comments that democracies naturally evolve into aristocracies, and aristocracies naturally evolve into monarchies. At least on one understanding of â€Å"natural,†democracies may be interpreted as less natural than aristocracies and monarchies (PT: VIII: 351). To understand ends, sources, and justification of political authority, one does well to begin with the Conatus Principle and the associated psychological axioms employed by Spinoza. The source of problems for Spinoza’s political theory, specifically the moral notions of â€Å"contract,†â€Å"rights,†and â€Å"obligations†can also be traced to his view of human nature.
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